Afro-Mexican Music and Its Legacy
Tracing the Rhythms of Africa to the Heart of Mexico
‘During the colonial period, from the 1500s to the 1800s, Spain colonized the Americas, including regions of present-day Mexico. This colonization included the conquest of Indigenous populations in Mexico and the importation of African captives to Mexico (New Spain)’. 43
The African presence in Mexico traces back to the arrival of the Spaniards during the transatlantic slave trade, yet the Afro-descendant population in Mexico has often been overlooked. According to the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), around 30% of Latin Americans, totaling 133 million people and counting, are of African descent. While the majority of Afro-descendants reside in countries like Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, Mexico has a smaller but notable Afro-descendant population, especially in coastal regions such as Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Guerrero.
It wasn’t until 2015 that Afro-Mexicans were officially recognized as an ethnic group in the country’s census. In 2020, the Mexican government passed a landmark law that officially recognized Afro-Mexicans as an ethnic group with distinct rights, marking a significant milestone in the fight for racial and social justice in Mexico. This law acknowledged the Afro-Mexican community's long history and presence in the country, which spans over 500 years, and their contributions to Mexican culture, identity, and development.
Enslaved Africans in Mexico resisted their oppression from the very beginning. The first recorded rebellion took place in 1523, setting the stage for a long history of uprisings. Between 1560 and 1580, Mexico saw its first major wave of slave rebellions, sparking widespread unrest. Over time, hundreds of rebellions erupted across the colony, becoming so frequent that Spanish authorities grew hesitant to import more enslaved Africans, fearing further resistance. Nevertheless, the forced migration of Africans persisted, with Veracruz, Campeche, Acapulco, and Mexico City serving as the primary entry points. These regions evolved into hubs of Afro-Mexican culture, where African traditions blended with Indigenous and Spanish influences, helping shape Mexico’s diverse cultural landscape.
In 1609, Gaspar Yanga and his community of escaped enslaved people resisted attacks from Spanish forces. As part of the agreement, the Spanish recognized the settlement as a free and self-governed town, making it the first free Black settlement in the Americas. The settlement was named San Lorenzo de los Negros (Figure 1.1) and was later renamed simply Yanga (located in Veracruz), in honor of its founder. Around 200 plus years later in 1829, Mexico was the first country in the Americas (before the United States) to officially abolished slavery, with the help of Afro-Mexican President Vicente Guerrero.
Throughout history, Afro-descendants in Mexico have preserved culture through cuisine, art, film, dances like La Danza de los Diablos, and many musical genres that uses instruments like Quijada de burro, Arpa, Marímbula and more. A few genres to mention include son jarocho, an Afro-Mexican traditional style from Veracruz that produced classics like La Bamba, La Guacamaya, and El Chuchumbé; son guerrerense, a regional genre from Guerrero; mariachi, cumbia, chilenas and son de artesa, the tropical rhythms of El Original Conjunto Mar Azul in Oaxaca; the soulful bolero ballads of Tona La Negra; and the masterful arpa jarocha playing of La Negra Graciana.
However, many afro-descendant songs did face censorship. In 1779, a decree banned El Chuchumbé, a song brought to Veracruz in 1766 by a European fleet that had made a stop in Havana, taking on passengers and sailors from Cuba’s predominantly Black and Mulatto population. According to scholar Daniel Sheehy, religious authorities deemed the song’s lyrics and accompanying dance too provocative, leading to its prohibition. The suppression of El Chuchumbé and other sones/songs with similarly controversial themes significantly influenced Son Jarocho, encouraging the genre’s signature use of clever wordplay and intricate metaphors.
LA GUACAMAYA
A key figure of son jarocho is La Negra Graciana, an Afro-Mexican musician from Veracruz known for her mastery of the arpa jarocha (a traditional harp). Her skillful playing brought a distinct depth and resonance to son jarocho, elevating the role of the harp in the genre and showcasing the African influences embedded in its rhythms and melodies. Through her work, she contributed to the preservation and popularization of Afro-Mexican traditional songs like La Guacamaya, La Bamba, El Siquisirí, and La Tienda, to name a few.
"La Guacamaya" is a son jarocho from Veracruz, Mexico. A guacamaya is a parrot, and in the most widely sung original version, the parrot is sad because he's hungry, yet he's able to fly away to a better place.”
Graciana’s 2008 performance of "La Guaymaca" remains one of her most iconic contributions to Afro-Mexican music. The guacamaya symbolizes both cultural identity and resistance, calling forth imagery of the Afro-Mexican communities that have long inhabited the southern coastal region of Veracruz. The song is an expression of Afro-Mexican identity, blending elements of the son jarocho tradition.
La Negra Graciana’s renditions of these songs have served as a powerful reminder of the African influence on Mexican music and that the cultural heritage of the Afro-Mexican community is celebrated and passed on to future generations.
La Guacamaya was later adapted and reinterpreted by multiple musicians and bands like Los Lobos, a Mexican American rock band from East Los Angeles and Las Cafeteras, a Chicano band from East Los Angeles known for folk music, spoken word, traditional son jarocho and zapateado dancing. In an interview in 2015, Gallegos (one of the band members) points to the song “La Guacamaya” as an example. “We would sing this song over and over and over and sing these verses about this bird and one day we were kind of discussing it and said, ‘What is a guacamaya?’ Some of us had never seen one in our life.” The band decided that, for them, “La Guacamaya” was a symbol for “ghetto birds,” or the helicopters that buzz above the poor neighborhoods of East L.A. “We were rewriting to our own experiences,” Gallegos says.
La Bamba
The most renowned and rearranged son jarocho, dates back to the 1600s. Early versions of La Bamba were also tied to themes of resistance and survival. The term "bamba" is believed to have African origins, particularly linked to the Black Congolese region. Many West African tribes, rivers, and towns bear variations of the word "bamba," which may also stem from Bantu languages, meaning "to shake" or "to sway"—a fitting connection to the lively zapateado dance that accompanies the song.
The oldest recorded version known is that of Alvaro Hernández Ortiz,9 who recorded the song with the name of "El Jarocho.” His recording was released by Victor Records in Mexico in 1938 or 1939 and was reissued on a 1997 compilation by Yazoo Records, The Secret Museum of Mankind Vol. 4.10
‘In Veracruz on Mexico’s Gulf coast, the song gained local notoriety not long after a pirate named Lorencillo attacked the town in 1683, an event sung about in a late 1600’s version of ‘la bamba’. Although the earliest first recorded version of la bamba in 1908. La Bamba gained its widest popularity when Miguel Aleman, a Veracruz native, became Mexico’s president in 1946. It was during the Aleman years that northbound migrant labor carried the song into American border states. Which eventually became popular in nightclubs in Acapulco and Tijuana. It became Mexico’s signature song. -88
Andrés Huesca, an artist from Veracruz, had also performed and recorded the song in the 1930s, and it was well-known in Mexican folk circles. Huesca achieved international acclaim as a harpist and popularized Son Jarocho through live performances, film, and recordings from the 1940s to the 1950s. He was the first Son Jarocho musician to migrate to Los Angeles and succeed in the industry.
It was later adopted by Ritchie Valens in 1958. His version of the song, titled La Bamba, became an iconic anthem, widely recognized for its catchy melody and Valens' charismatic performance. It was one of the first songs to merge traditional Afro-Mexican folk music with the style of rock and roll, bridging cultural gaps and bringing Latin influences into mainstream American pop music. Eventually, Valens' La Bamba reached No. 22 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and is still celebrated as a classic today. His legacy was further immortalized in the 1987 film La Bamba, which chronicled his life and tragic passing at just 17 years old.
Alma De Veracruz
Through "Alma de Veracruz," Toña la Negra expresses the importance of embracing one's roots and celebrating one's identity. Praising the warmth and the soul of the region, the "alma" (soul) of Veracruz. It speaks to the customs, traditions, and the joy that fills the air with music, dance, and celebration. The song is not just a tribute to Veracruz, but to the broader Mexican experience and the people who have maintained and continued these traditions through generations.
Born María Antonia del Carmen Peregrino Álvarez on November 17, 1912, in Veracruz, Mexico, was an Afro-Mexican singer known for her deep, emotive voice and mastery of bolero. She gained fame in the 1930s and 1940s as one of the greatest interpreters of Agustín Lara's compositions, solidifying her place in Mexican musical history. Throughout her career, Toña’s voice became synonymous with the essence of Veracruz's musical soul. She not only excelled in bolero, but also brought a sense of authenticity and emotion to every song she performed, making her a key figure in the golden age of Mexican music. Despite the challenges of the time, including the racial prejudice faced by Afro-Mexican artists, Toña rose to become an influential and beloved figure in the music world, and her legacy continues to inspire future generations of singers.
Despite the deep-rooted history in Mexico, Afro-Mexicans have long been marginalized in national narratives. Many people are unaware of Mexico’s Afro-descendant population, largely due to historical erasure. Many of these songs became a crucial form of oral history, preserving narratives that were otherwise erased or ignored by written records. Afro-Mexican musical traditions retain strong African elements, serving as a lasting testament to the enslaved Africans brought to New Spain (colonial Mexico) in the 1500s and their enduring cultural legacy.